tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13811140359496085272024-03-05T08:18:12.691-07:00Understanding World ReligionsThis blog is intended to facilitate discussion about the study of religion. If focuses on the relationship between Christianity and other religious traditions.Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger18125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-37780926135041011472017-04-14T10:32:00.001-06:002017-04-14T10:33:07.832-06:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Once again I have got behind, or rather totally neglected my Blog, now I must make a new resolution to post updates regularly. So I will begin with some interesting news.<br />
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Zondearvan has produced a DVD to accompany my world religions textbook <i><a href="http://www.zondervan.com/catalogsearch/result/?q=Irving+Hexham" target="_blank">Understanding World Religions</a></i>. Like the book it encourages people to attempt to see different world religions as they are seen by members of a particular faith. The DVD was intended for use in churches as well as colleges and universities. Therefore, it involves more comments on the relationship of different religions to Christianity.<br />
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<span lang="EN-US"> Note the upcoming promotion Zondervan is doing for <i><a href="http://www.zondervan.com/understanding-world-religions-video-lectures" target="_blank">UnderstandingWorld Religions Video Lectures</a></i> from April 18-20, 2017. During the promotion, the
lectures will be on sale for 55% off. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">They are selling them in two different
formats. People can purchase them digitally (download + streaming) from Vimeo
or as a DVD through ChurchSource.com (free shipping is included in this
option). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-79682029038961013992015-10-31T23:43:00.000-06:002015-10-31T23:45:01.612-06:00The Plague of Plagiarism: Academic Plagiarism Defined<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">At the end of my last Blog, which was written
over a year ago I wrote: “</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The sad fact is that
unlike in Theology and other well established disciplines, the field of
Religious Studies, possibly because of its interdisciplinary nature, appears to
suffer from a high level of outright plagiarism. This is an intolerable
situation that must change if the field is to survive as a serious area of
academic study.” At the time I intended to develop this theme with some new
thoughts on academic fraud. But, for a variety of reasons this never got done.
Therefore, I think it may be useful to republish my earlier work on plagiarism
so that the reader knows what I meant by my comment. So here it is:</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">The
Plague of Plagiarism: Academic Plagiarism Defined</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br />
Irving Hexham<br />
Department of Religious Studies, University of Calgary <br />
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">©
Copyright Irving Hexham 1992, 1999, 2005, 2015</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Contents.<br />
1. How serious a problem is academic plagiarism?<br />
2. So what is plagiarism?<br />
3. Types of plagiarism.<br />
4. Indications of plagiarism.<br />
5. Discussion and caution.<br />
6. Correct citation and quotation.<br />
7. Conclusion.<br />
8. Bibliography.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">How
serious a problem is academic plagiarism?<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="howserious"></a><br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Numerous
studies show that plagiarism and other types of academic fraud is increasing
among undergraduate students. For example in a recent article published by the
Center for Academic Integrity (CAI), Professor Don McCabe claims that "On
most campuses, 70% of students admit to some cheating" while
"Internet plagiarism is a growing concern" because although only
"10% of students admitted to engaging in such behavior in 1999, almost
40%" admitted to it in 2005" (CAI 2005). To date no one has measured
the extent of plagiarism among established academics although the indications
are that between 10% and 15% of books and theses in the Humanities and Social
Sciences contain unacceptable levels of plagiarized material (<i>Daily Lobo</i>,
5/3/2000; <i>Kansas City Star</i>, 02/15/2002; <i>National Post </i>August 30,
2003. page. A.6).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The
practice of plagiarism is a form of academic high treason because it undermines
the entire scholarly enterprise. How else do professors decide between a good
and a bad student, evaluate a candidate for an academic position, or grant
promotion to a fellow faculty member, if not on the basis of the belief that
their written work is actually their own work?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Therefore,
plagiarism must be prevented at all levels of academic life from student papers
to academic books. Nevertheless, care must be taken whenever one suspects a
writer of plagiarism. It cannot be stressed enough that everyone makes a few
mistakes and that genuine cases of similar use may occur. Consequently, what
must be identified are patterns of behavior, repetitive practices, and clear
indications of an attempt to deceive. The following paper attempts to identify
plagiarism and show how plagiarists weave their web of deception.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">2. So
what is plagiarism?<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="whatis"></a><br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Defining <i>plagiarism</i>
is actually fairly easy. <i>The Compact Edition of the Oxford English
Dictionary</i> (<i>COED</i>) says that plagiarism is:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">1. The action or practice of
plagiarizing; the wrongful appropriation or purloining, and publication as
one's own, of the ideas, or the expression of ideas (literary, artistic,
musical, mechanical, etc.) of another. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">2. A purloined idea, design,
passage, or work. (<i>COED</i> 1971:2192)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">According to the same dictionary,
to <i>purloin</i> means: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">To make away with,
misappropriate, or take dishonestly; to steal, esp. under circumstances which
involve a breach of trust; to pilfer, filtch;</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">And a <i>purloiner</i>
is: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">a petty thief, a pilferer. (<i>COED</i>
1971: 2365)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Hence the
common definition of <i>plagiarism</i> is theft. All of this seems
straightforward enough, but, experience teaches that both students, and many
faculty, are very apt at excusing misdemeanors. The problem is that while some
people are genuinely confused, many have a vested interest in muddying the
waters because plagiarism can be a very profitable business that can lead to
employment, promotion and regular salary increases all at the taxpayer's
expense costing millions of dollars every year.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Unfortunately,
while there are some good books on plagiarism generally, such as Thomas
Mallon's <i>Stolen Words: Forays into the Origins and Ravages of Plagiarism</i>
(New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989), very little has been written about
academic plagiarism. Therefore, it is important to provide clear examples of
what counts as plagiarism. To help clarify the situation the following
definition is proposed:</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Plagiarism</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> is the deliberate attempt to
deceive the reader through the appropriation and representation as one's own
the work and words of others. Academic plagiarism occurs when a writer
repeatedly uses more than four words from a printed source without the use of
quotation marks and a precise reference to the original source in a work
presented as the author's own research and scholarship. Continuous paraphrasing
without serious interaction with another person's views, by way or argument or
the addition of new material land insights, is a form of plagiarism in academic
work.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">How this
definition works in practice is explained below. First, however, it is
necessary to remind readers that the successful academic plagiarist is like the
undetected embezzler. A bank clerk who takes $100,000 for one account is
clearly likely to be caught fairly quickly. Therefore, the skilled embezzler
steals $100 from 1,000 accounts over a ten year period on the assumption that
few people will miss $10 a year. Thus, embezzlers attempt to disguise illegal
transactions so that they look like genuine mistakes, or appropriate bank
charges, rather than theft. Academic plagiarizers act in a similar manner and
are unlikely to copy entire books. Instead they take sentences and paragraphs
from many books while at the same time providing false leads that make their
borrowings look like genuine mistakes or poor footnoting.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3. Types
of plagiarism<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="types"></a>.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The following
forms of plagiarism were all found in various academic books and manuscripts,
some of which were written by established authors. The specific examples used
in this paper were created using citations from my book <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981) to avoid possibly embarrassing
some well-known scholars whose work readers might recognize. Each section
begins with an original statement from my book. The statement is then
plagiarized to provide examples of the different ways a text may be
misappropriated. The nature of the offense is explained and an example of
correct usage is provided. The examples they may seem repetitive and boring,
but this is the only way one can stimulate the necessary debate.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOYT0K95ekN9-yzBN6lLH-DCxPcQBlJR_my8wK-rsicaEwJedTlWI7CDFBgkH93UugwEsOeuIHoZ1KUgQWDIcS0up5rzylUX9dtGbV8sT5uQKmwawxEmCXDfzDP67xCQT3uw2PlYwe7k4/s1600/irony.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOYT0K95ekN9-yzBN6lLH-DCxPcQBlJR_my8wK-rsicaEwJedTlWI7CDFBgkH93UugwEsOeuIHoZ1KUgQWDIcS0up5rzylUX9dtGbV8sT5uQKmwawxEmCXDfzDP67xCQT3uw2PlYwe7k4/s1600/irony.jpg" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.1.
Straight plagiarism.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">This
occurs where only capitalization and sentence structures are changed and the
odd word is added or deleted. But, the original author is not acknowledged, nor
are quotation marks used. The minor change in wording, changed capitalization,
sentence structure and other visible features alter the appearance of the
passage giving the appearance that it is original work. The following examples
illustrate this technique:</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Original:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">But
Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for the rights of the Afrikaner.
Only the National Party offered a Christian solution to South Africa's racial
problems. The politics of the nationalists, were in the view of <i>Het Westen</i>,
unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner People were a Christian people,
therefore their politics must of necessity be Christian.<sup>(1)</sup></span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1)</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Plagiarism:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">But
General Hertzog recognized the danger and fought for the rights of the
Afrikaner. Only the National Party offered a Christian solution to South
Africa's racial problems. The politics of the Nationalists, were in the view of
the newspaper <i>Het Westen</i>, thoroughly Christian. The Afrikaner People
were a Christian People, therefore their politics must of necessity be
Christian.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Correct usage:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Hexham
writes "But General Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for the
rights of the Afrikaner. Only the National Party offered a Christian solution
to South Africa's racial problems. The politics of the nationalists, were in
the view of <i>Het Westen</i>, unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner People
were a Christian people, therefore their politics must of necessity be
Christian."<sup>(1)</sup></span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.2.
Plagiarism using a citation.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Here
although the real author is acknowledged plagiarism takes place because the
original text is reproduced with only minor changes without using either
quotation marks or footnotes:</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Original:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">But
Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for the rights of the Afrikaner.
Only the National Party offered a Christian solution to South Africa's racial
problems. The politics of the nationalists, were in the view of <i>Het Westen</i>,
unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner People were a Christian people,
therefore their politics must of necessity be Christian.<sup>(1)</sup></span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Plagiarism:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Professor
Hexham brilliantly observes that Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for
the rights of the Afrikaner. Only the National Party offered a Christian
solution to South Africa's racial problems. The politics of the nationalists,
were in the view of <i>Het Westen</i>, unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner
People were a Christian people, therefore their politics must of necessity be
Christian.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Note:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> this is an example of plagiarism
even though the author acknowledges a debt to "Professor Hexham,"
because appropriate quotation marks are not used nor are we given a page
reference to the source. Note also the use of the word "brilliant."
In practice, plagiarists often use exaggerated descriptions of someone's work
before plagiarizing it. This is probably because we are all flattered when
someone says we are "brilliant." Therefore we are unlikely to look to
closely at a work or complain about the misuse of our own work by someone who
clearly likes us. Therefore, such terms are often triggers that warn us we are
about to encounter plagiarism.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Correct usage:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Professor
Hexham observes that "Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for the
rights of the Afrikaner. Only the National Party offered a Christian solution
to South Africa's racial problems. The politics of the nationalists, were in
the view of <i>Het Westen</i>, unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner People were
a Christian people, therefore their politics must of necessity be
Christian"<sup> (1</sup>) </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.3 Simple
plagiarism using a footnote.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">A
reference is provided but quotation marks are still not used when academic
rules for citation demand their use and some words are slightly changed to make
the passage appear to be different from the original.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Original:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">But
Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for the rights of the Afrikaner. Only
the National Party offered a Christian solution to South Africa's racial
problems. The politics of the nationalists, were in the view of <i>Het Westen</i>,
unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner People were a Christian people,
therefore their politics must of necessity be Christian.<sup>(1</sup>)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Plagiarism:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In his
insightful book <i>The Irony of Apartheid</i> Dr. Hexham observes that Dr.
Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up against the British for the rights
of the Afrikaner. Only the <i>Nationale Partie </i>offered a real solution to
South Africa's racial problems. The politics of Afrikaner Nationalists, were in
the view of <i>Het Westen</i>, entirely Christian. The Afrikaner Volk were a
Christian People, therefore their politics must of necessity be Christian.<sup>(1</sup>)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i>, chapter 7</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Note:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> the flattering use of
"insightful", and minor changes to the text such as the substitution
of "Dr" for "General", and "Volk" for
"People." Note also that quotations marks are still not used even
though they are required, nor are we given an exact page number.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Correct usage:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In his
book <i>The Irony of Apartheid</i> Dr. Hexham observes that "General
Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up against the British for the rights
of the Afrikaner. Only the National Party offered a real solution to South
Africa's racial problems. The politics of the Nationalists, were in the view of
<i>Het Westen</i>, entirely Christian. The Afrikaner People were a Christian
People, therefore their politics must of necessity be Christian."<sup>(1</sup>)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.4.
Complex plagiarism using a footnote.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">This
happens when various changes and paraphrases, from more than one page, are used
with a footnote but without appropriate quotation marks. Thus a reference is
given, although it may not be to exactly the correct page, and many words and
phrases are taken from the original text. Paraphrasing is used to condense
lengthy arguments. But, little or no indication is given that the passage is
paraphrased, nor are quotation marks used when needed. Another technique found
in this type of plagiarism is a deliberate attempt to change the appearance,
but not content, of the sentences, thus making the plagiarism less noticeable.
For example:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Original:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Such
views articulated in the student magazines, also received clear, though less
detailed treatment in <i>Het Westen</i>. Afrikaners were reminded that they
were a Calvinist People with a duty to retain their nationalism.<sup>(1</sup>)
In the view of <i>Het Westen</i>, ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church like
General Botha</span><span style="font-family: "WP TypographicSymbols","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">=</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">s friend Herman Bosman were mistaken in arguing, like their leader
Andrew Murray, for the separation of religion and politics.<sup>(2</sup>)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), 182</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Ibid., 187 </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Plagiarism:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Such
views articulated in the student magazines, also received clear, though less
detailed treatment in <i>The Westerner</i> which reminded Afrikaners that they
were a Calvinist Volk with a duty to retain their nationalism.<sup>(1</sup>) In
the view of this newspaper, ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church like Herman
Bosman, General Botha</span><span style="font-family: "WP TypographicSymbols","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">=</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">s friend, were "mistaken in arguing, like Dr. Andrew Murray for the
separation of religion and politics" even though he was their mentor.(<sup>2)</sup></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), 182.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2</span></sup><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">) The Westerner</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">, 4/12/1912.<b><br />
<br />
Note:</b> in the last example <i>Het Westen</i> becomes "The
Westerner"giving the impression that the author is translating from the
Afrikaans original. Note also the way the order of certain short phrases, like
"General Botha's friend," are changed around. This type of alteration
to the text disguises the extent of the plagiarism making it less easy to spot.
Finally, although part of the quotation is placed in quotation marks it is done
is such a way that the reader is led to believe that the writer is directly
quoting from the newspaper and not from <i>The Irony of Apartheid</i>.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Correct usage:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Hexham
writes "Such views articulated in the student magazines, also received
clear, though less detailed treatment in <i>Het Westen</i>. Afrikaners were
reminded that they were a Calvinist People with a duty to retain their
nationalism."<sup>(1)</sup> Later he adds that "In the view of <i>Het
Westen</i>, ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church like General Botha</span><span style="font-family: "WP TypographicSymbols","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">’</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">s friend
Herman Bosman were mistaken in arguing, like their leader Andrew Murray, for
separation of religion and politics."<sup>(2</sup>)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 182</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Ibid., p. 187.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.5 Plagiarism
with hanging quotations.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Here the
plagiarist begins by using a quotation but continues to quote after closing the
quotation marks.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Original:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Hertzog's
policies were also seen as an expression of the myth of apartheid. He, and he
alone, was represented as holding a realistic racial policy by which was meant
one which segregated black from white. "Natives have to learn that they
are not equal to whites," <i>Het Westen</i> declared. The native must
learn to recognize that white technology and industry has raised them from
barbarism. Too many people reacted emotionally to the race question and assumed
colored people could be given a greater say in the government of South Africa.<sup>(1)</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1)</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 184.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Plagiarism:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">According
to Hexham "Hertzog's policies were also seen as an expression of the myth
of apartheid."<sup>(1)</sup> He, and he alone, was represented as holding
a realistic racial policy by which was meant one which segregated black from
white. The Afrikaans newspaper, <i>Het Westen</i> declared "Natives have to
learn that they are unequal to whites."<sup>(2</sup>) Hexham says this
meant that "the native must learn to recognize that white technology and
industry has raised them from barbarism."<sup> </sup>Clearly, in view of <i>Het
Westen</i> too many individuals reacted emotionally to the race question. Only
radicals assumed Colored People could be given a greater say in the Government
of South Africa.(3)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 184.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2) </span></sup><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Het Westen</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">, 7/27/1906.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(3)</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 184.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Note</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">: the plagiarized passages are
sandwiched in between genuine quotations while yet again the reader is led to
believe that the author is citing directly from <i>Het Westen</i> when, in fact
they are still citing <i>The Irony of Apartheid</i>.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Correct usage:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">According
to Hexham "Hertzog's policies were also seen as an expression of the myth
of apartheid. He, and he alone, was represented as holding a realistic racial
policy by which was meant one which segregated black from white."<sup>(1) </sup>The
Afrikaans newspaper, <i>Het Westen</i>, declared "Natives have to learn
that they are not equal to whites."<sup>(2) </sup>Hexham says this meant
that "the native must learn to recognize that white technology and
industry has raised them from barbarism."<sup>(3)</sup> Clearly, in view
of<i> Het Westen</i>, "Too many people reacted emotionally to the race
question and assumed colored people could be given a greater say in the
government of South Africa."(4)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1)</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen), 1981, p. 184.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2)</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> <i>Het Westen</i> 7/27/1906,
cited in Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen,
1981), p. 184.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(3) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 184.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(4)</span></sup><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Het Westen</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> cited in Irving Hexham, <i>The
Irony of Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 184.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.6.
Paraphrasing as plagiarism.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Paraphrasing
without reference to the original source and extensive or continuous
paraphrasing, even when the source is mentioned, without the addition of
material, that seriously interacts with the paraphrased passages or add
significant new information, is plagiarism. This type of plagiarism is more
difficult to prove. Nevertheless, it is plagiarism. Legitimate paraphrasing
takes place only where the source is acknowledged and where the paraphrasing is
limited to material that is then discussed, explained, and argued about. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Acceptable
paraphrasing takes place when:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">1) The paraphrasing does not
dominate a writer's work </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">2) Where the paraphrase is made
to allow the author to interact critically with another person's views </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3) When the argument of the
original text is re-written in different words.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">When an
academic article, chapter or book that purports to be original scholarship, as
demanded in a Ph.D. thesis, contains introductory and/or closing pages or
paragraphs written by an author followed by a paraphrase or paraphrased
passages that make up the bulk of the work then the article, chapter, or book
is plagiarized. Compiling the views of other people and passing them off as
one's own research is not scholarship. Nor can such works claim to be original
even though nobody else has produced exactly the same collection of compiled
opinion. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Originality
in scholarship demands original thought and critical reflection on the views of
others not mere repetition preceded or followed by inane comments. Only when an
author adds significant and original insights is paraphrasing justified. Even
then the norms of scholarship demand that all paraphrased passages are clearly
identified as paraphrases. For example:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Original:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">But
Hertzog recognized the danger and stood up for the rights of the Afrikaner.
Only the National Party offered a Christian solution to South Africa's racial
problems. The politics of the nationalists, were in the view of <i>Het Westen</i>,
unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner People were a Christian people,
therefore their politics must of necessity be Christian<sup>(1</sup>) … Such
views articulated in the student magazines, also received clear, though less
detailed treatment in <i>Het Westen</i>. Afrikaners were reminded that they
were a Calvinist People with a duty to retain their nationalism.<sup>(2</sup>) </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), 182</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Illegitimate paraphrase:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Standing
up for the Afrikaner's rights because of the dangers he saw looming, Hertzog
argued that a Christian solution to South Africa's racial problems was to be
found in the policies of the National Party. Nationalist politics were
according to <i>Het Westen</i> undoubtedly Christian and he Afrikaner People
must support them because they were a Christian People. Views like these were
expressed by students in their magazine …</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Appropriate paraphrasing:<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Hexham
argues that standing up for the Afrikaner's rights because of the dangers he
saw looming, Hertzog argued that a Christian solution to South Africa's racial
problems was to be found in the policies of the National Party. Nationalist
politics were according to <i>Het Westen</i> undoubtedly Christian and he
Afrikaner People must support them because they were a Christian People.<sup>(1)</sup>
He also observes that Views like these were expressed by students in their
magazine.<sup>(2) </sup>The problem with Hexham's argument it that he pays far
too much attention to the views of Hertzog and the students who supported
Hertzog's views. He also fails to explain exactly what Hertzog meant by
"Christian" thus overlooking the fact that Hertzog was actually an
agnostic inspired by Bismark's son-in-law Count Keyserling. Consequently he
fails …</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(1) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.</span></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(2) </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, <i>The Irony of
Apartheid</i> (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1981), 182.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In the passage provided above
Hexham's understanding of Hertzog's position is paraphrased for the purpose of
criticizing it and showing the weakness of the argument. To do this the critic
first points out weaknesses in Hexham's general approach, then draws attention
to his failure to adequately define a key term, finally new information about
Hertzog's views are introduced. Thus the paraphrase serves a greater purpose
than simply repeating Hexham's views in other words and actually adds new
information that increases the understanding of the reader. When an entire
academic monograph consists of paraphrased passages, with only a few
explanatory comments that frame the paraphrasing, the book is plagiarized even
though the author continually refers to the original author of the material
cited and does not quote the author without quotation marks.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">3.7.
Self-plagiarism.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Some
people argue that self-plagiarism is impossible by definition because
plagiarism is theft and people cannot steal from their own work. But, this is
not correct in law. There are circumstances, such as insurance fraud,
embezzlement, etc., when it is possible to steal from oneself.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In the
Internet<i> Humanist Forum</i>, professor Paul Brian's of the University of
Montreal, argued that self-plagiarism "is also a theft since the author
leads the book-buyer to think that there is a new book of his on the market The
author is misleading his/her readers: to me, it is just the same thing as to
sell a second-hand car while claiming it's a brand new one" (<i>The
Humanist Forum</i> 7/13, 16 April 1992). Perhaps a better analogy is the used
car dealer who changes a car's odometer to make it appear much less used than
it really is. Such a practice is recognized to be illegal. So too
self-plagiarism is fraud (Brogan 1992:453-465).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Although
self-plagiarism in academic publications is a grey area, many universities
implicitly recognize the practice as fraudulent by publishing rules preventing
students from submitting essentially the same essay for credit in different
courses. There are also rules against someone submitting the same graduate
thesis to different universities. Among established academics self-plagiarism
is a problem when essentially the same article or book is submitted on more
than one occasion to gain additional salary increments or for purpose of
promotion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Like all
plagiarism the essence of self-plagiarism is when the author attempts to
deceive the reader. This happens when no indication is given that the work is
being recycled or when an effort is made to disguise the original text. The
issue once again is one of deception.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Disguising
a text occurs when an author makes cosmetic changes that cause an article,
chapter, or book, to appear to be new when in reality it actually remains
unchanged in its central argument. Changing such things as paragraph breaks,
capitalization, or the substitution of technical terms in different languages
so that readers to believe they are reading something completely new is
self-plagiarism when these are the only changes an author has made to a text.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The
extent of re-cycling is also an indication of self-plagiarism. Academics are
expected to republish revised versions of their Ph.D. thesis. They also often
develop different aspects of an argument in several papers that require the
repetition of certain key passages. Thus it is not self-plagiarism if the work
develops new insights.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">It is
self-plagiarism if the argument, examples, evidence, and conclusion, remain the
same without the development of new ideas or presentation of additional
evidence. In other words it is self-plagiarism when two works only differ in
their appearance. Self-plagiarism, however, must be carefully distinguished
from the recycling of one's work, that to a greater or lesser extent is legitimate
when it is presented to a completely new readership that otherwise would not
read the original work or when it is necessary to repeat old arguments and material
to make new points or significant modifications to old ones.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">4.
Indications of plagiarism<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="indications"></a>.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The most
common indication of plagiarism is when someone writes something that contains
clearly different styles, such as a student essay with grammatically incorrect
opening and closing paragraphs enclosing a body of text containing near perfect
prose. In practice many plagiarists give themselves away in this way by copying
mistakes found the source they are plagiarizing.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">For
example suppose an author says that A.J. Ayer described someone as "a literary
gadfly whose ideas are not to be taken seriously" and gives A.J. Ayer, <i>Wittgenstein</i>,
London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984, p. 159, as a reference. Then when you
check the reference in A.J. Ayer's book you find that it was first published in
1985 and has only 155 pages the question of possible plagiarism must be taken
seriously. If it is discovered that an earlier book attributes exactly the same
phrase, e.g. "literary gadfly," to Ayer along with the same false
date and page number that then it is safe to conclude the author of the later
book plagiarized the earlier writer's work without actually reading Ayer's
book.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In such
cases plagiarism is proven because the impression given to the reader is that
the author of the later book was working with original texts when in fact they
based their work based on a secondary source. In these and similar cases
plagiarism can be proven because the author's text contains printing and other
mistakes found in an earlier source.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">For
example, suppose someone wrote a book on Kant claiming that he based his ethics
on St. Paul's argument about love found in 1 Corinthians 13.13.1-13. It would
be natural to assume that the repetition of the chapter number "13"
in the reference to St. Paul was a printing error. The correct reference ought
to read 1 Corinthians13.1-13. If, however, it can be shown that several years
earlier another book, or academic article, on Kant contained an identical
mistake then the reader ought to look more closely at the two texts to see if
there are other indications of plagiarism. When the later author uses identical
arguments, including the repetition of the same words, as the earlier author
then plagiarism is clearly proven. In practice many plagiarists give themselves
away in this way.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">5.
Discussion and caution<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="discussion"></a>.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In
judging that an author plagiarizes great care must be taken to ensure that
careless mistakes, printing errors, inexperience, and even editorial changes
made by a press are not used as accusations against an innocent person.
Further, it is necessary to recognize "common usage" and the nature
of the writing itself.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">For
example many basic textbooks contain passages that come very close to
plagiarism. So too do dictionaries and encyclopaedia articles. In most of these
cases the charge of plagiarism would be unjust because there are a limited
number of way in which basic information can be conveyed in introductory
textbooks and very short articles that require the author to comment on well-known
issues and events like the outbreak of the French Revolution, the conversion of
St. Augustine, or the philosophical definition of justice. Further, in the case
of some textbooks, dictionaries, newspaper articles, and similar types of work
both space and the demands of editors do not allow the full acknowledgment of
sources or the use of academic style references.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">It should
also be noted that many more popular short pieces, like oral lectures, are
produced from old notes and memory. Professors often don't know from where they
got a particular definition or description of a well-known figure or event. As
long as such writing deals with things that are essentially public domain, even
though at times specific wordings may be very similar indeed, this is not
plagiarism because it does not involve deliberate fraud. For example, it is
almost impossible to describe the origins of something like the Watergate
Affair in 300 words without using almost identical words to anyone else that
attempts to describe the same event.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The
intent of the writer should is the key issue in recognizing plagiarism. For
example in the early years of this century the best-selling German author, Karl
May (1842-1912) was accused of plagiarism because his adventure stories
contained descriptions of landscapes and urban settings which were clearly
culled from travel books. May did not deny this. He simply argued that to judge
his works as plagiarized because he borrowed geographic descriptions in which
to set his stories was to totally misunderstand the function of the
storyteller. Someone spinning a yarn may borrow freely if they reuse the
original material in such a way that the final product is not dependent on what
has been borrowed to create the setting.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIZSSUCywWnFOa9FLCcUJYy2K1nYlxDg5-io7bkt3wDUuyT52Ovb477_zaJipTMpHRmxZpm5BeMT0HLPlBkSAlO8VspjwSjTovj2V_7fIkUzfgBJqGNtMRj2783ETeqJBxqxtHr42JKwo/s1600/winnitou.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIZSSUCywWnFOa9FLCcUJYy2K1nYlxDg5-io7bkt3wDUuyT52Ovb477_zaJipTMpHRmxZpm5BeMT0HLPlBkSAlO8VspjwSjTovj2V_7fIkUzfgBJqGNtMRj2783ETeqJBxqxtHr42JKwo/s1600/winnitou.jpg" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcTJ589ws9GtnfJBOH2VCjrV1-ZaK-N1v85NXlBWy_Ql7Hrux7G3826tsab074qOr7vkSpgyae2SHFi5eo5aemP9dlB2T0HrwoBeovOlFJDtG_hJ7P1rXEgmfh_pybjbu76b_Lb2D33mI/s1600/ich+karl+may.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcTJ589ws9GtnfJBOH2VCjrV1-ZaK-N1v85NXlBWy_Ql7Hrux7G3826tsab074qOr7vkSpgyae2SHFi5eo5aemP9dlB2T0HrwoBeovOlFJDtG_hJ7P1rXEgmfh_pybjbu76b_Lb2D33mI/s1600/ich+karl+may.jpg" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">It is
therefore seems necessary to distinguish between academic and other types of
writing and to ask what is the reader led to believe an author is doing. If a
book or thesis contains academic footnotes, is written in an academic style,
and is presented as a work of original scholarship, then it must be judged as
such and measured against the accepted rules for citation found in sources such
as <i>The Chicago Manual of Style</i>. If it does not measure up to such
standards then it is possible that plagiarism has occurred.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">A few
academics argue that provided footnotes are given plagiarism cannot be said to
have taken place. This view is completely wrong. In both the Napolitano v.
Princeton University Trustees case and the Texas Tech in Lubbock cases the use
of footnotes to mask a plagiarized text was judged to prove the deliberate
nature of the fraud (Cf. Mawdsley, 1985:6-7; and Mallon, 1989:159). Thus
academic authors who give the impression that they are following standard
procedures, by their use of footnotes etc., when they are actually borrowing
the words and ideas of others without appropriate references or quotation marks
are plagiarizing. This must be made absolutely clear in any statement on
plagiarism.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivwMaRTHGDCo1l4zFv0aSmOm_oVI7qMR9pbFTOqmjHxB2z95L0eJh69jc1AgQsdBDqpXO3vcvdc4viXPSOY54rkeEl9HujBEB3n71kmd2ez3skKGYVvL5U5B18SUmy3JwB7f5Xfk1iHGc/s1600/stolenwords.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivwMaRTHGDCo1l4zFv0aSmOm_oVI7qMR9pbFTOqmjHxB2z95L0eJh69jc1AgQsdBDqpXO3vcvdc4viXPSOY54rkeEl9HujBEB3n71kmd2ez3skKGYVvL5U5B18SUmy3JwB7f5Xfk1iHGc/s1600/stolenwords.gif" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">6.
Correct citation and quotation<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="correct"></a>.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">To avoid
plagiarism it is necessary to know how to cite works correctly and use
quotations. For this <i>The Chicago Manual of Style</i> is invaluable. It
states:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">10.1 Ideally, authors of works of
original scholarship present their arguments in their own words.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">10.2 Whenever authors paraphrase
or quote from sources directly, they should give credit to the words and ideas
taken from others.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">10.3 Commonly known facts,
available in numerous sources, should not be enclosed in quotation marks or
given a source citation unless the wording is taken directly from another. Also
not treated as quotations are proverbial, biblical, and well-known literary
expressions used as part of the author's text. (<i>The Chicago Manual of Style</i>,
1982: 282)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Although
these comments are very helpful, many people might be left wondering when they
ought to use quotation marks. The accepted rule of thumb is after four words.
That means you must use quotation marks for any passage copied from another
work containing five or more words. To help students avoid such problems many
university departments publish essay guides. These should be carefully read.
For example, the Department of Politics at the University of Calgary publishes
an essay guide: <i>Write On: A Reference Manual for Students Research and
Writing</i> which states:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">If you use more than four words
from any source, put them in quotation marks and identify the source with a
reference mark.<br />
(Tom Flanagan, <i>Write On</i>, Calgary, Department of Politics, 1989: 20)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Exactly
which reference system, and several are available, a writer chooses to use is
not important. What is essential is that the reader knows exactly which
sections of the work are original to the author and which depend upon the
thoughts and words of others. All sources must be documented and every
quotation has to be placed within quotation marks.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPnnlTT8rHnzSamXzJ3Bt5jZCLCcrsIKlrTOyuV99a3fgb1PExxLm-2oicVhmpYzl-h_xkCxs9dpYJ7SE3NDPv-950nJjioBG3D6GsI_9qBYrd_C8ru0i7bX8MLgLiiDDdOZneCSptAMI/s1600/chicagomanual.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPnnlTT8rHnzSamXzJ3Bt5jZCLCcrsIKlrTOyuV99a3fgb1PExxLm-2oicVhmpYzl-h_xkCxs9dpYJ7SE3NDPv-950nJjioBG3D6GsI_9qBYrd_C8ru0i7bX8MLgLiiDDdOZneCSptAMI/s1600/chicagomanual.gif" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhK45U4EaTSF59gZ59XPckRiDsPvEAv1MrMPuK_jSl2m4hGfq6a-3D85_W_14Le0iEBusEVKinTlY7UBGgfQSdeA0Xd8CQe0YlBuW1UOUyUB7RiHnPcfjFYybnkfQQ9hsU0j8z1L_sUU-8/s1600/canadianstyle.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhK45U4EaTSF59gZ59XPckRiDsPvEAv1MrMPuK_jSl2m4hGfq6a-3D85_W_14Le0iEBusEVKinTlY7UBGgfQSdeA0Xd8CQe0YlBuW1UOUyUB7RiHnPcfjFYybnkfQQ9hsU0j8z1L_sUU-8/s1600/canadianstyle.gif" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhfsP-QIgQtjogCvGIhE9Qa-UNmhMvvtYQ_O8vvBCD37BCkwVtW7bEO3mVZEOXu9Oueyqs1SKay5-MgOdLfHiEYnCEvDzoS_1nZ-XLoJOU7yhbFEDHmlBoxPvOmc4df7Aj3IqRsJhHoTfdiL32EMC-JogSvXYZkqXMAWU-c6hp3bw="><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout;"><br /></span></span></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEitvyAMBoOXlvCk1szMvh-4E9CgdKjeg4qupgpSxkQnNgYR1wDfvUIuxaHrobh8uzxPi55Uiem1zdAQJCjxkkedXvL_1aAqWDXykwNqFmV-UAAGm4fK9gf2cL-w8Jzv1zLz1m6ZR815o1xB5sSdSgznV3N7R_zc2tiF-wluUImNaw="><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout;"></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Anyone
wanting more help on this topic should read books like <i>The Chicago Manual of
Style </i>(Chicago, Chicago University Press, 2003, first edition 1949) , Kate
L. Turabian's <i>A Manual of Style for Writers</i> (Chicago, Chicago University
Press, 1996, first edition 1963), <i>The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and
Editing </i>(Secretary of State, Toronto : Dundurn Press, 1985), or one of the
many other texts available in academic bookstores.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">7.
Conclusion<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="conclusion"></a>.<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Finally,
I want to plead with colleagues that plagiarism be taken very seriously indeed.
We need agreed definition, examples, standards and punishments. As professor
Hoke Robinson argued on <i>The Humanist Forum</i>:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">A single fraudulent grade could
in practice make the difference; a series of them certainly could. In this case
some other, presumably honest student who would otherwise have gotten the
scholarship, admission or job has been wronged. And the higher the level, the
greater the wrong, from the plagiarized intro-course essay to the term paper to
a masters and doctoral dissertation. The misrepresentation gets you on the
bench, and somewhere in the end, in the dark, somebody falls off.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Another wrong that's seldom noted
in cases like this is the wrong to those served by the people who obtained
their position through fraud. The professor...who faked his way through school
presumably serves his students...less well than the one whose credentials were
gained honestly ... there is a collateral effect ..." </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">(<i>The Humanist Forum</i>,
message 8/8, 2 April, 1992).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">If
academics do not control professional standards, then other people will do it
for them. Granting agencies and government will eventually ask where their
money is going and why we did nothing when clear fraud occurred. Therefore, now
is the time to act by clearly identifying what plagiarism is and how it should
be dealt with among both students and faculty.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Bibliography</span></b><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="bibliography"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Works
dealing with writing and plagiarism in an academic context</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Irving Hexham, “Forget about academic
fraud: Were you sexually harassed?” in Kenneth Westhues, ed., <i>Workplace
Mobbing in Academe: Reports from Twenty Universities </i>, Lewistion, Edwin
Mellen Press, 2004, pp. 218-237.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Wilfried Decoo, <i>Crisis on
Campus: Confronting Academic Misconduct</i>, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press, 2002.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Edward P. Bailey, Jr., Philip A.
Powell, Jack M. Shuttleworth,<i> Writing Research Papers: A Practical Guide</i>,
New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Martha Brogan, "Recycling
Ideas," <i>College and Research</i> <i>Libraries</i>, Vol. 53, No 5,
September 1992. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">More
general works on plagiarism and academic fraud:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Alexander Lindey, <i>Plagiarism
and Originality</i>, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1974, an older work which has
some excellent examples and legal discussion but which, unfortunately, does not
deal with academic plagiarism.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Thomas Mallon, <i>Stolen Words: Forays
into the Origins and Ravages of Plagiarism</i>, Ticknor & Fields, New
York, 1989, which has a good descriptive chapter on academic plagiarism.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Ron Robin, <i>Scandals and Scoundrels:
Seven Cases that Shook the Academy</i>, Berkeley, University of California
Press, 2005.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Ralph D.
Mawdsley, <i>Legal Aspects of Plagiarism</i>, Kansas, National Organization on
Legal Problems of Education, 1985. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Standard works on the correct use
of references:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The Chicago Manual of Style, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Chicago, Chicago University
Press, 2003, first edition 1949</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Kate L. Turabian's <i>A Manual of
Style for Writers, </i>Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1996, first edition
1963 </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">The Canadian Style: A Guide to
Writing and Editing, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Secretary
of State, Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1985<b><br />
</b>Frederick Crews, <i>The Random House Handbook</i>, New York, Random House,
1984.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Michael Meyer, <i>The Little,
Brown Guide to Writing Research Papers</i>, Boston, Little, Brown and Company.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Donald E. Miller, Barry Jay Seltser, <i>Writing
and Research in Religious Studies</i>, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1991.</span></div>
<!-- Blogger automated replacement: "https://images-blogger-opensocial.googleusercontent.com/gadgets/proxy?url=http://people.ucalgary.ca/%7Ehexham/content/gifs/chicagomanual.gif&container=blogger&gadget=a&rewriteMime=image/*" with "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEitvyAMBoOXlvCk1szMvh-4E9CgdKjeg4qupgpSxkQnNgYR1wDfvUIuxaHrobh8uzxPi55Uiem1zdAQJCjxkkedXvL_1aAqWDXykwNqFmV-UAAGm4fK9gf2cL-w8Jzv1zLz1m6ZR815o1xB5sSdSgznV3N7R_zc2tiF-wluUImNaw=" --><!-- Blogger automated replacement: "https://images-blogger-opensocial.googleusercontent.com/gadgets/proxy?url=http://people.ucalgary.ca/%7Ehexham/content/gifs/canadianstyle.gif&container=blogger&gadget=a&rewriteMime=image/*" with "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEhfsP-QIgQtjogCvGIhE9Qa-UNmhMvvtYQ_O8vvBCD37BCkwVtW7bEO3mVZEOXu9Oueyqs1SKay5-MgOdLfHiEYnCEvDzoS_1nZ-XLoJOU7yhbFEDHmlBoxPvOmc4df7Aj3IqRsJhHoTfdiL32EMC-JogSvXYZkqXMAWU-c6hp3bw=" -->Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-6621168648985642042014-07-12T14:34:00.003-06:002014-07-12T14:37:12.247-06:00Plagiarism in Religious Studies<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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</xml><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Continuing from my last blog it has to be said
that in contrast with Theology the situation regarding plagiarism
is quite different in
Religious Studies. In Religious Studies plagiarism is comparatively
common. </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">For
example, one well known Religious Studies scholar misquotes an Indian religious
text in exactly the way described in the previous blog. And he does so in at least five of his books. Yet no one has
even commented on the “typographical error” in these citations. Nor, have they
pointed out that his “translation” comes from another scholar’s work where it
is publish, along with the faulty reference. To make matters worse the
preceding and subsequent passages in these works also come from the work where the original
translation is given along with the flawed reference.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>
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<span lang="EN-US">In another instance a Religious Studies scholar
wrote a long description of a specific type of Indian philosophy that continued
for at least three pages that were a direct quotation, without quotation marks,
from a book by an Indian writer. Similarly another well know Religious Studies
scholar produced a book discussing the views of one of the early founders of
“comparative religion.” This book reads well until one checks the footnotes and
compares the text against the work of the scholar whose views are being
expounded. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Once this is done it soon becomes apparent that the entire book is a
continuous paraphrase of the earlier scholar’s work. While this is not direct
plagiarism it is nevertheless a form of plagiarism because it presents the
paraphrase as original scholarship without the addition of new insights or
significant criticisms needed to interpret the original work.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The
sad fact is that unlike in Theology and other well established
disciplines, the field of Religious Studies, possibly because of its
interdisciplinary nature, appears to suffer from a high level of
outright plagiarism. This is an intolerable situation that must change
if the field is to survive as a serious area of academic study.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><b>To be continued ...</b></span></div>
<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-72322444670446202142014-05-13T20:55:00.004-06:002014-05-13T20:55:44.999-06:00Eric Sharpe's problem with sloppy scholarship<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">To appreciate the problem Eric Sharpe
identified, imagine a well-known theologian publishing a new work on Biblical
views of creation in which he provided his own translation of “Genesis 1.1.1”
as “This is the story of how the universe was formed. When god began to form
the universe the world was void, and vacant, darkness lay over the abyss.”<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">No doubt reviewers would quickly point out
the typographical error in the references because Genesis 1.1.1 does not exist. The
correct reference is Genesis 1.1.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Then, no doubt someone would comment on the
peculiarity of this translation. Most translations Genesis 1.1 read something
like: “In the beginning God create the heavens and the earth. The earth was
without form and void and darkness was upon the face of the deep” (RSV).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><o:p><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">In fact, none of the major English
translations use the word “abyss” for “deep” nor do any except that of James
Moffatt take the liberty of moving Genesis 2.4 to the beginning of Genesis. Yet
this where Moffatt places, that is before Genesis 1.1. in his "<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The Moffatt Translation of the Bible"</span>
(1926).</span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Further suppose that a particularly
thorough reviewer was puzzled by this use of Genesis 1.1 with its strange
beginning and faulty reference. Therefore, he does a Google search and
discovers that in 1920 Moffatt actually published an article on the Biblical
meaning of creation that contained both the citation and faulty reference. If
upon closer examination he discovered that the preceding and subsequent
passages were direct quotes from Moffatt’s article without the required
quotation marks. Then he or she might reasonably conclude that the entire
passage was plagiarized with the reference acting a signature that proves
plagiarism beyond any doubt.</span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">As far as I know Moffatt did not write such
an article in 1920 or at any other time. Nor, has some enterprising theologian
used such an article in the way described above because if they did the
plagiarism would soon be discovered and exposed.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">The
situation is quite different in many works published by Religious Studies scholars…
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">To be continued …</b></span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-72855907165521483452014-03-07T09:55:00.001-07:002014-03-07T10:03:06.733-07:00Picking up where I left off - the problem of inter-disciplinary studies in the study of religion<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">My last post on 31 March 2012 was published shortly after my wife's cancer operation and before she began radiation treatment. After that, as I noted earlier this week, my efforts at blogging came to a standstill. Now I hope to pick things up again. At the end of my last post I wrote:</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">"<span style="font-weight: normal;">Sadly, although Eric Sharpe recognized
that one of the main problems facing religious studies is its
“inter-disciplinary” nature few people take his concerns seriously. In
light of his identification of the problem of “credibility” it is no
surprise to find that when <a href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/search/node/Wilfried%20Decoo" target="_blank">Wilfried Decoo</a> investigated academic fraud he
found that “A person engaging in inderdisciplinary activities is more
likely to engage in academic misconduct …" and “new interdisciplinary
fields” in particular, “are at high risk” (Decoo, 2002:27 and 30). Yet
despite growing evidence that inter-disciplinary fields
encourage academic fraud university administrators continue to rush
headlong to establish inter-disciplinary programs (Decoo, 2002:14-30)." This statement needs further clarification.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Here I need to put my cards on the table. When I was awarded an academic <i><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" target="_blank">Festschrift</a></i>, its title was <a href="http://www.steiner-verlag.de/titel/56527.html" target="_blank"><i>Border Crossings:</i></a></span><a href="http://www.steiner-verlag.de/titel/56527.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</xml><![endif]--></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: italic; letter-spacing: -0.15pt;"> The Explorations of an Inter-disciplinary Historian</span></i></a><span lang="EN-US" style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">. Throughout may career, as the editors noted, I have engaged in, and published, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">inter-disciplinary work. So why am I agreeing with Sharpe and criticizing inter-disciplinary studies?</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-US" style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">The answer is simple. I believe that to engage in inter-disciplinary work one must qualify to do so by mastering specific disciplines, their literature, theories, and research methods. Here Decoo reminds me of Karl Marx's caustic statement "</span><span lang="EN-US" style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">M. Proudhon has the misfortune of
being peculiarly misunderstood in Europe. In France, he has the right to be a
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he has the right to be a bad philosopher, because he is reputed to be one of
the ablest French economists. Being both German and economist at the same time,
we desire to protest against this double error." ( Karl Marx, <a href="http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/poverty-philosophy/" target="_blank"><i>The Poverty of Philosophy</i></a>, 1847).</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-US" style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">The problem with "interdisciplinary studies" as practiced by many people today is that it is an excuse for not mastering any discipline and simply picking and choosing statements that confirm one's prejudices. It is this type of writing that Sharpe rejected. In my next post I will provide some examples to put this claim in context ... </span></span></span></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><b>References:</b></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Decoo, Wilfried, 2002, </span><span style="line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/search/node/Wilfried%20Decoo" target="_blank"><i>Crisis on Campus.Confronting Academic Misconduct</i></a>, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. </span> </span></span></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: italic; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span></span></span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.15pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">van der Heyden, </span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.15pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.15pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Ulrich ,</span></span></span></span></span> and Andreas
Feldtkeller, 2008,</span></span></span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: italic; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> <a href="http://www.steiner-verlag.de/titel/56527.html" target="_blank">Festschrift: BorderCrossings: The Explorations of an Inter-disciplinary Historian</a></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -.15pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag. </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-45589580584650495542014-03-04T07:29:00.001-07:002014-03-04T07:29:37.267-07:00Why no recent postings?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Visiting a Blog that has not been updated for almost a year can be
discouraging. And this Blog falls into that category. The reason is
quite simple: a series of family illnesses. Now, I hope, things are
getting better and I can return to blogging.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-50245172419410027192012-03-31T12:34:00.001-06:002012-03-31T13:17:27.057-06:00Eric Sharpe on the importance of academic disciplines<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Given what he saw as the rise of dilettantism and a lack of a through grounding in the field, Sharpe lamented that “students in search of essay material had no way of telling the difference between books found on the library shelves, or of distinguishing between types and levels of evidence …” In fact, “Most beginning students of religions were simply naïve” because studying religion “was a novelty …” (Sharp 1997:54). Further, “very few had … experience of world religions … and a fair proportion were either hostile or indifferent to what little they knew of Christianity …” (Sharpe 1997:53).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhB-iGepd4yV6QGbSAEWpolnGMquy48j_KNQXkfRagJ4Fm00jMFwSUeKpO6IVpNJzar_PssH5BB_a9gUsxSwlTxDs9GE7WkeiFj7nWV6wg6vO2ZKGeL1qbGwQRs_iysTFxYPidhQJzLWXk/s1600/tn_Photo+19-4+The+Rabbula+Gospels.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhB-iGepd4yV6QGbSAEWpolnGMquy48j_KNQXkfRagJ4Fm00jMFwSUeKpO6IVpNJzar_PssH5BB_a9gUsxSwlTxDs9GE7WkeiFj7nWV6wg6vO2ZKGeL1qbGwQRs_iysTFxYPidhQJzLWXk/s1600/tn_Photo+19-4+The+Rabbula+Gospels.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">For example, he argued that lecturing about theological liberalism and the rise of neo-Orthodoxy theology, made no sense if taken out of its historical and social context. Only if one understood the history of the Twentieth Century with its bloody wars and vicious dictatorships could the history of European religious thought make sense (Sharpe 1997:55). Similarly, in conversation he would say that studying the Buddhist or Hindu traditions with no knowledge of Indian history and society was absurd.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Yet it was precisely the historical and social contexts that Sharpe found missing among both students and colleagues. As a result he saw academic debate degenerating into what Rudyard Kipling had called “a day-to-day traffic in generalities, hedged by trade considerations.” Thus Religious Studies was endangered by “the setting up and knocking down” of men of straw by “alienated and disaffected escapees” from the authority of traditional religions and disciplines (Sharpe 1997:57).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The problem as Sharpe saw it was that “Once upon a time, every western academic knew in principle what a ‘discipline’ was …” (Sharpe 1997:57). Disciplines “presupposed the existence and acceptance of properly constituted authority and obedience to the rules it had laid down. They imply continuity along a chain of tradition …” based on a long academic apprenticeship that provides the practitioner with credibility.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br />
</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9wuhHb1ULv370Yrc-VFCdtsjPi7zecn6hQpS35CkS_KY4eMJ_xnEM6yBPMi1YxDTNWmb4OhFGa0_zSHcFtdYVenMhmnC-mq44AbOR30OrooOVSoP1NDnKiU_V8hQDwWwxOzSA2j47Ggw/s1600/tn_Buddha-m.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9wuhHb1ULv370Yrc-VFCdtsjPi7zecn6hQpS35CkS_KY4eMJ_xnEM6yBPMi1YxDTNWmb4OhFGa0_zSHcFtdYVenMhmnC-mq44AbOR30OrooOVSoP1NDnKiU_V8hQDwWwxOzSA2j47Ggw/s1600/tn_Buddha-m.JPG" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">He noted, “In our day we have an ambiguous, almost schizophrenic, attitude to notions like this …” Yet, in another context “None of us whould care to entrust our lives to an airline pilot whose chief textbook had been <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jonathan Livingston Sea-gull</i>, or to an enthusiastic but entirely self-taught surgeon.” Yet in fields like religious studies “we lose our bearings” because there is “seemingly there is no need to inquire after our instructors’ qualifications, once we have accepted their persons.”</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Nevertheless, despite the fact that no one disputes that a self-taught heart surgeon is unacceptable accepting the self-taught professor of religion is common place. Even worse many of these new “experts” bring with them a “bitterness toward everyday religion” that distorted their understanding (Sharpe 1997:58). Sharpe ends his discussion admitting “I am easily depressed by all those hordes of ideologists who simply want to tell people what to think, supplying every situation with an appropriate question, and every question with an appropriate answer” (Sharpe 1997:59).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRIC2AsZmjTOuqNGNiRvOO0Rne1pk-hXU7SfIn03i9mI7DYB4UqOHQydII1sfOz23jl5MYpzbgtiW5x_uSxw-_2z2I-ThtbiEUX0c8TTtO6Vl1OjwT2Cqm_ebiLjVNpttIGlvWXnGGa8c/s1600/crisisoncampus.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRIC2AsZmjTOuqNGNiRvOO0Rne1pk-hXU7SfIn03i9mI7DYB4UqOHQydII1sfOz23jl5MYpzbgtiW5x_uSxw-_2z2I-ThtbiEUX0c8TTtO6Vl1OjwT2Cqm_ebiLjVNpttIGlvWXnGGa8c/s200/crisisoncampus.JPG" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wilfried Decoo, <i>Crisis on Campus</i>Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002</td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Sadly, although Sharpe recognized that one of the main problems facing religious studies is its “inter-disciplinary” nature few people take his concerns seriously. In light of his identification of the problem of “credibility” it is no surprise to find that when Wilfried Decoo investigated academic fraud he found that “A person engaging in inderdisciplinary activities is more likely to engage in academic misconduct …" and “new interdisciplinary fields” in particular, “are at high risk” (Decoo, 2002:27 and 30). Yet despite evidence of growing evidence that inter-disciplinary fields encourage academic fraud university administrators continue to rush headlong to establish inter-disciplinary programs (Decoo, 2002:14-30).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>Bibliography</b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Wilfried Decoo, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Crisis on Campus</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2002</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Eric Sharpe, “The Compatibility of Theological and Religious Studies: Historical, Theoretical and Contemporary Perspectives.” In <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion Bulletin</i>, September 1997.</span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-11891928818798813002012-03-03T07:07:00.002-07:002012-03-03T07:08:43.426-07:00Growing dilettantism in Religious Studies<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Ironically, it was Smart’s former colleague Eric Sharpe, the critic of Harnack, who eventually highlighted the growing dilettantism of many Religious Studies programs. What is striking about Sharpe’s argument is that for all his defense of Religious Studies as a valid academic pursuit, he was painfully aware of forces that undermined the field from its beginning. For Sharpe the greatest threat to Religious Studies was not theology but the development of academic amateurism or, as Harnack put it, dilettantism.</span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Coming from the North of England where calling a spade a spade is a virtue Sharpe was far less diplomatic in his criticism of the way Religious Studies had developed than the more genteel Smart. Although passionately committed to the study of religions, Sharpe believed things had gone badly astray in the way religion and religions were taught and studied in universities.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Pulling no punches he bluntly told his audience that students were desperately in need of “routine, unspectacular knowledge of the basics, as a condition of being able to decipher the small print” but instead of receiving it they were often taught by professors who lacked such knowledge themselves. In his words “the students” and even their teachers “had no context in which to place” the topics they were studying (Sharpe 1997:53). In other words, in Sharpe’s view, half educated academics were teaching even less well educated students none of whom fully understood what they were reading.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBIFaWKlarG2pd5t97tEWY2FK-pYJKY-UfgHeuGOlqRRGfZrbqycnGILU2h6bHH7A0o1yhHDwwJqo5HPUZ0PThUUv1dmjV-ZsnFWdDuk-iqgHrVcfm-N6BiTRBI8SNrzc-RNvzrU2pfn4/s1600/Adolf-Harnack.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBIFaWKlarG2pd5t97tEWY2FK-pYJKY-UfgHeuGOlqRRGfZrbqycnGILU2h6bHH7A0o1yhHDwwJqo5HPUZ0PThUUv1dmjV-ZsnFWdDuk-iqgHrVcfm-N6BiTRBI8SNrzc-RNvzrU2pfn4/s200/Adolf-Harnack.jpg" width="126" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><strong>Adolf Harnack (1851-1930)</strong></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">In this situation, Sharpe argued, the issue of “subjectivity and objectivity” became the main “methodological problem” which constantly reappeared in various forms. Yet all it did was expose the naivety of supposed scholars who convinced themselves “that there are quicker and easier ways of acquiring skills than be embarking on the long apprenticeship which provides access to a craft.” <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">He then caustically added: “We recognize at once how bogus this is when we consider the work of a heart surgeon, an airline pilot, or a concert pianist, where the standards we have come to tolerate in the humanities would be a recipe for total disaster.” But, he went on, Religious Studies has fallen victim to “methodological (or at any rate procedural) innovators” whom he clearly regarded as fraudulent.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>To be continued ...</strong></span></o:p></span></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>References:<o:p></o:p></strong></span></span></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 28.5pt; text-indent: -28.5pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Sharpe, Eric J.: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Comparative Religion. A History</i>, London, 1975.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 28.5pt; text-indent: -28.5pt;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Sharpe, Eric J., “The Compatibility of Theological and Religious Studies. Historical, Theological and Contemporary Perspectives,” in: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion Bulletin</i>, vol. 26, No. 3, 1997, pp. 66-68.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-58034420634546153202011-12-11T17:51:00.000-07:002011-12-11T17:51:52.066-07:00Ninian Smart and the growth of dilettantism<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US">The big problem with Smart’s understanding of Religious Studies was his inconsistency. As he observed in his methods paper he came to Religious Studies with a thorough and highly specialized training. This included a strong background in various languages including Latin, Greek, Chinese, Sanskrit, and Pali, immersion in the complexities of British analytic philosophy, and considerable historical knowledge. To these academic skills he added extensive cross-cultural experience which he first gained as an intelligence officer serving the British Army in Sri Lanka and India in the mid-1940’s (Smart 2000:20-22 and 31).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US">Therefore, one the one hand he criticized trends like postmodernism while at the same time criticizing what he saw as a trend towards specialization. These criticisms of Religious Studies need to be seen against the background of Smart’s own training and high expectations of the abilities of other scholars and his own students.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US">They should not be seen as a blank check to lower academic standards. Although Smart’s comments about “professionalism” clearly show that he recognized the dangers of dilettantism he side stepped the issue without really facing up to the fact that it represented a growing trend, particularly in North America. No doubt Harnack would have pointed this out with alacrity.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US">Smart’s bold advocacy of a multi-disciplinary, polymethodic, comparative, approach, to the study of religion and religions is exactly the sort of thing Adolf Harnack feared. This is not to say that if we had a time machine that enabled us to transport Smart back to 1901 for a meeting with Harnack they would not have agree on many issues. Indeed, they would probably have become close friends.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US">The problem was not with Smart himself, who was a thorough and highly gifted scholar, but rather it is with those who adopted his arguments without his rigor. Smart decried over-specialization, but was none the less highly specialized in his approach, and he always demanded mastery of their topics from his graduate students. Unfortunately, few other teachers are as skilled and able as he.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ironically, it was Smart’s former colleague Eric Sharpe, the critic of Harnack, who eventually highlighted the growing dilettantism of many Religious Studies programs ...</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh053bHRNGRsB6ucPyeB8d43Q9qbo7PcHnVPRIzso-mTjfJN2tVT-2pprRB8NYXyJAEcdWBySWpk12jXoiPiQmNK6_WQMXKDZLIKoLntjQdoGDAOlJYdT_Nu1FaVWwENRALmeeMVZ34EmU/s1600/comparative+religion.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh053bHRNGRsB6ucPyeB8d43Q9qbo7PcHnVPRIzso-mTjfJN2tVT-2pprRB8NYXyJAEcdWBySWpk12jXoiPiQmNK6_WQMXKDZLIKoLntjQdoGDAOlJYdT_Nu1FaVWwENRALmeeMVZ34EmU/s1600/comparative+religion.gif" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-14741293210755147962011-09-07T09:01:00.000-06:002011-09-07T13:41:56.586-06:00Changing times<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">While Smart was still hopeful about the future of religious studies academic fashions began to change. First it was Marxism heavy. That is designer Marxism created for and propagated by highly privileged pseudo-intellectuals who were as far removed from the realities of the working class as it was possible to get. They corrupted the lucid prose of Marx with an intoxicating cocktail of early twentieth century scholastic German. As Karl Popper wrote in another context these authors had “nothing whatever to say”, but they said “it in Hegelian language”(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Myth of Framework</i>, London, Routledge, 1994:78).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcumV-LwBnM1KiqX3CPnMU0fj3Q9Q3gWT1E1624FuTm7KenQgpB0FUbs59YL_Moph7aRhwKILVd5EQqLePg-nXaWuTyvMCnMgrlmbqcC8yOeCF0BqMjtCPguWdIgwFDHjlK4f4QKlPX9k/s1600/Marx-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcumV-LwBnM1KiqX3CPnMU0fj3Q9Q3gWT1E1624FuTm7KenQgpB0FUbs59YL_Moph7aRhwKILVd5EQqLePg-nXaWuTyvMCnMgrlmbqcC8yOeCF0BqMjtCPguWdIgwFDHjlK4f4QKlPX9k/s320/Marx-2.jpg" width="260" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Marx and Engels in Alexanderplatz, Berlin</b></td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">With the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 everything changed. Within a couple of years the fog of designer Marxism had been replaced first by deconstruction and then by post-modernism. Both were equally mystifying as was the fact that former “Marxists” were now convinced post-modernists.<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]--><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> The fact that the guru of these new trends Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), in his essay “The Force of Law,” found <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Deconstruction and the Possibility of </i>Justice, edited by D. Cornell (New York: Routledge, 1992), admired the Nazi philosopher Carl Schmitt (1888-1985), whose political theories he aligned his own with worried no one.</span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">After all Derrida was “on the left” and he clearly said that Schmitt was a Roman Catholic (Cornell, 1992:52) omitting to add that Schmitt had formally left the church as a teenager and consciously developed his political ideas in the service of Hitler. Thus the moral seriousness and clearly stated message of Marx was transformed into an unreadable morass of morally dubious assertions that only the unenlightened were interested in questioning while true believers swallowed them wholesale.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8TSZ0eVrivP0dGj33CSpQ5Z3-bxOFojbkbLtBuhVeKOzRaovfYQ2CarriITUVe1sT4xadezpnmwZ5G95SfDjgq0EKOQDHDrqVJcr5_2DsIgGnCY_pyIEQQF9xGXCsGWzK7TGRTtNvqXM/s1600/Photo+Conclusion-8+Derrida.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8TSZ0eVrivP0dGj33CSpQ5Z3-bxOFojbkbLtBuhVeKOzRaovfYQ2CarriITUVe1sT4xadezpnmwZ5G95SfDjgq0EKOQDHDrqVJcr5_2DsIgGnCY_pyIEQQF9xGXCsGWzK7TGRTtNvqXM/s320/Photo+Conclusion-8+Derrida.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Derrida at the AAR in Toronto</b></td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">At the same time research budgets began to shrink increasing the appeal of esoteric interpretations and endless discussions of language over the rigours of fieldwork and archival research. A new scholasticism took hold of many scholars and by his own admission Smart’s vision for the future of religious studies began to dim.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">To be continued ...</b></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-70002904827797422572011-03-05T12:21:00.000-07:002011-03-05T12:21:26.077-07:00Smart's vision of a bright future for Religious Studies<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Three years later Smart took up the theme of professionalism once again in his article “Methods in my Life” where he provided the social and historical context for his inaugural address and defended his basic argument about the nature of Religious Studies. Yet again in this paper he stressed the importance of empathy for understanding religions and the need for what he called a “plural, polymethodic, non-finite” approach to the subject (Smart 2000:22).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNe7POVkMPLfChym2ZQVwZCA71pdb9DUB_Ud_rhI4V6dvSLhIkDrj_CkhqR2HorpdXuIT6POSEylPkBDkBa1qum8qR5_4I9OWNV0uKAGFrNraunK843C4hPF5ZRBDta9avpjZXRSTPUss/s1600/craft.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNe7POVkMPLfChym2ZQVwZCA71pdb9DUB_Ud_rhI4V6dvSLhIkDrj_CkhqR2HorpdXuIT6POSEylPkBDkBa1qum8qR5_4I9OWNV0uKAGFrNraunK843C4hPF5ZRBDta9avpjZXRSTPUss/s200/craft.jpg" width="128" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Then he outlined some dangers he believed were threatening the integrity of the field in particular what he called “the trend to the particularization of cultures” (Smart 2000:30) based on “New Theories, such as deconstruction” that he saw as encouraging people with “ideological or spiritual axes to grind” to use Religious Studies for their own ends (Smart 2000:34). After spending considerable effort decrying “pseudo-specialization” and the growing influence of specialists who, in his view, threatened “the fragmentation and disintegration of Religious Studies” (Smart 2000:31), he concluded that “Religious Studies, provided it does not choke on specialism or commit methodological suicide, has a marvelous future” (Smart 2000:35).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">To be continued ...</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><b>Bibliography</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal">Smart, Ninian. "Methods in My Life" 18-35. In Stone, Jon R., ed., <i>The Craft of Religious Studies.</i> New York: Palgrave, 2000.<span lang="EN-US"><b> </b> </span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-50747906136908667592011-01-22T08:08:00.000-07:002011-01-22T08:10:28.186-07:00The importance of openness and alternatives<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Thus, according to Ninian Smart, “all worldviews are open to question and debate” including “the evolutionary model … we cannot dogmatically assert any one worldview to be established” (Smart 1989:9). Stressing one of his basic educational principles, he argued, “It is I believe a principle of education that you should, where there is doubt, point out alternatives.” (Smart 1989:10). Praising both Gandhi and Popper for their openness Smart argued that what is needed is academic “openness” adding “I count myself a glasnostic” (Smart 1989:10). <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFeLOeUK6Kb2R5SNRojYGd_z9Wx7bSSySLorsUKRZCQXAc3XlQEBNCdIzy0mEBGV9BFA2JDhyNv7MMSzRGinw0Kqh_Ia6mHZMNJ1N9EVZpl91d4cVyE8CDQ432YVbaMP5aMPxMGzLpaDk/s1600/Photo+Conclusion-11+Ninian+Smart+in+Washington.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="217" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFeLOeUK6Kb2R5SNRojYGd_z9Wx7bSSySLorsUKRZCQXAc3XlQEBNCdIzy0mEBGV9BFA2JDhyNv7MMSzRGinw0Kqh_Ia6mHZMNJ1N9EVZpl91d4cVyE8CDQ432YVbaMP5aMPxMGzLpaDk/s320/Photo+Conclusion-11+Ninian+Smart+in+Washington.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ninian Smart at a conference in Washington, D.C.</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
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This led him to declare “If we wish, therefore, to teach British history creatively, we should emphasize the progress towards openness, criticism and democracy which we have made: and indeed towards internationalism. We do not want to stick to utter tradition, but to find in tradition modern values” (Smart 1989:13).<br />
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He wound up his paper by re-asserting his views about the nature of religion, Religious Studies, and its value to society. Then he compared the study of religion to the study of nationalism urging that one enlightened the other. Finally he declared that Religious Studies “is a wonderful subject” and that 60 Lancaster Religious Studies graduates were teaching in universities worldwide.<br />
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Eight years later, in 1997, the "Council of Societies for the Study of Religion" published several papers in its "Bulletin" on the relationship between religious studies and theology to which Ninian Smart and his former colleague Eric J. Sharpe contributed. Once again Smart displayed an almost missionary zeal by restating the aims outlined in his inaugural address. Although he made a strong plea for a “multidisciplinary” approach to the study of religion that of necessity involved the interaction of several disciplines he never really fully explained here or elsewhere how he saw this approach working in practice.<br />
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At the same time he clearly recognized growing concerns about the development of Religious Studies but failed to address them adequately. Instead he simply restated that “Religious Studies is a field which is aspectual, cross-cultural, multidisciplinary (polymethodic), and non-finite” which he argued is “an important social science and humanities subject” (Smart 1997:68). The closest he came to addressing problems within the field was when stated quite bluntly that “Too much of academe is swayed by propaganda, notably in the humanities and social sciences” and asserted his belief in the importance of “professionalism” (Smart 1987:68).<br />
<br />
Bibliography<br />
Smart, Ninian: Religious Studies & Some Contradictions in Mrs. Thatcher’s Policies, Lancaster 1989.<br />
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Smart, Ninian: “Religious Studies and Theology”, in: The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion Bulletin, vol. 26, No. 3, 1968, pp. 66-68.</div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-82604358947491879202011-01-18T21:45:00.002-07:002012-03-03T06:37:45.925-07:00Ninian Smart's exergual lecture at the University of LancasterIn his exergual lecture Smart restated his vision of Religious Studies as “an approach which is crosscultural, open, empathetic, descriptive, theoretical and critical” (Smart 1989:1). This led him to argue that “Because the study of religion is crosscultural and plural it is transnational” (Smart 1989:3) and this is where it came into conflict with Thatcher’s “strong nationalism” (Smart 1989:1 and 3).<br />
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Facing what he clearly saw as barbarians at the gate of higher education Smart offered a defense of education as a good in itself. Education, he argued “is more than a way into usefulness. It involves cultivation of human quests and interests” because, he argued, “direct relevance may tend to be self-defeating” (Smart 1989:4).<br />
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Apart from his criticisms of Thatcher’s policies Smart made several asides lamenting the failure of Britain’s “new universities,” which were built in the 1960’s, to live up to their initial promise. All too often they had reverted to old ways and lacked imagination (Smart 1989:4).<br />
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A third theme that ran through this speech echoed a tone of disappointment with the way Religious Studies had developed. Smart found it necessary to define what he meant by a secular university.<br />
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For him this did not mean a university that promoted, or was built on secularism, rather “Religious Studies is, as I have said, crosscultural. Its scope includes world religions. It is the logical way to explore religion in the secular university. By ‘secular’ here I mean ‘pluralistic.’ It is part of the logic of the university that it should be open to truth” (Smart 1989:6). For Smart this meant that “The liberal cannot shut out non-liberal positions, but should preserve the plural milieu” (Smart 1989:7).<br />
<br />
Bibliography<br />
Smart, Ninian, The Principles and Meaning in the Study of Religion, Lancaster, Department of Religious Studies, 1968.<br />
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Smart, Ninian: Religious Studies & Some Contradictions in Mrs. Thatcher’s Policies, Lancaster, Department of Religious Studies, 1989.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-78405580492858064522011-01-08T16:22:00.000-07:002011-01-18T21:39:17.348-07:00Ninian Smart's inaugural lecture - launching British Religious StudiesNinian Smart outlined his basic understanding of Religious Studies in his inaugural lecture <i>The Principles and Meaning in the Study of Religion</i> in 1968.<br />
In this lecture he summarized his views about the teaching of religion in an upbeat manner. Religion, he argued, must be studied in the following ways:<br />
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1) Historically<br />
2) Phenomenologically<br />
3) Anthropologically and sociologically<br />
4) Psychologically<br />
5) Philosophically<br />
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Then he added that the study of religion must:<br />
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1) engage with modern atheistic thought<br />
2) engage other religious traditions and not simply Christianity<br />
(Smart 1968:10-11)<br />
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He ended his lecture by arguing that “the pattern of religious studies is determined by an inner logic. This pattern of a pluralistic, structural, ancient and modern study of religions suits all interests (Smart 1968:14)<br />
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Twenty-one years later, on 22 June 1989, Ninian Smart delivered his exaugural address shortly before leaving Lancaster to take up a full time position at the University of Santa Barbara. In sharp contrast to his inaugural address Smart’s words were heavy with foreboding.<br />
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The title was <i>Religious Studies & some contradictions in Mrs. Thatcher’s policies</i>, summed up his main concern that the educational “reforms” pushed through by Sir Keith Joseph were a step backwards and no reforms at all. The quest for “economic relevance,” he argued was a short term expedient that failed to offer long term solutions to Britain’s future (Smart 1989:1-5).<br />
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<b>Bibliography</b><br />
Smart, Ninian, <i>The Principles and Meaning in the Study of Religion</i>, Lancaster, Department of Religious Studies, 1968. <br />
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Smart, Ninian: <i>Religious Studies & Some Contradictions in Mrs. Thatcher’s Policies</i>, Lancaster, Department of Religious Studies, 1989.<br />
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Copies of both of Ninian Smart's lectures will soon be available for download from the "Study of Religion" link on the <i>Understanding World Religions Website.</i> The website is linked to this blog. Profesor Smart gave me permission to distribute them years ago well before his tragic death. It can be found at:<br />
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http://people.ucalgary.ca/~uwr<br />
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More to follow …Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-42471613946822301972010-12-30T23:27:00.001-07:002011-01-08T16:08:26.334-07:00Ninian Smart and the origins of Religious StudiesThe issues raised by Adolf Harnack came to the fore again in the 1960’s with the development of religious studies as a newly formed academic discipline. For example, Ninian Smart founded Britain’s first department of Religious Studies full of hope in 1967. A year later, in 1968, he delivered his inaugural address in which he attempted to articulate his vision for the field by outlining both its scope and the methods he thought most appropriate for studying religion and religions.<br />
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Smart began by locating his new department in a historic and disciplinary context akin to both anthropology and history. The study of religion, he argued, requires that scholars describe religion in its historical and what he called its “structural” forms. By, historical he meant its many manifestations through history. By structural forms he meant its social manifestations as observed by anthropologists and sociologists. To perform these tasks Smart further argued “the study of religion must be comparative” (Smart 1968:3-4). That is one must study religions not simply one particular religion.<br />
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His next point was that to study religion involved understanding the discourse of religious people and texts. As a result “It follows, therefore, that the logic of the study of religion itself impels one towards taking the philosophy of religion seriously” (Smart 1968:6). Smart then made the shrewd comment that “the understanding of others, whether in the past of one’s own tradition or other cultures, requires self-understanding”. This he rightly observed is because “the observer is not wholly detached” (Smart 1968:6). Therefore, he correctly noted that without appreciating the logic involved in studying religions the exercise becomes meaningless.<br />
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More to follow next week.<br />
<b></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-22359514519168367502010-12-22T08:48:00.000-07:002010-12-22T08:53:13.791-07:00Adolf Harnack's criticism of Religious StudiesWhen Eric Sharpe sought to trace the history of Religious Studies in his book <i>Comparative Religion: A History</i> (1975) he identified Friedrich Max Müller as the key figure in the development of the field. The “science of religion” he argued, began with Müller’s insight: “He who knows one, knows none” (Sharpe 1975:31). After lauding Müller’s achievements he observed that Müller: “recruited an entire generation of scholars to his cause, as editors, translators, and commentators …” (Sharpe 1975:45) thus firmly establishing the study of religion, as distinct from theology, in the Western academic tradition.<br />
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Sharpe then comments on the tensions between the academic study of religion and theology using conflicts between Religionsgeschichte and theology in Germany as his main example. Although he acknowledges that at the time there were “over fifty chairs of Oriental studies in Germany” he laments that “there was no chair of comparative religion (under any name)”.<br />
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Then he singles out Adolf Harnack’s address "Die Aufgabe der theologischen Fakultäten und die allgemeine Religionsgeschichte" (1901) as indicative of the narrowly confessional attitude of theologians towards the study of religion (Sharpe 1975:126-127). Although Sharpe notes Harnack’s concern that the comparative study of religion would likely lead to an “unhealthy dilettantism” he merely notes objections to this view without exploring Harnack’s argument in any detail.<br />
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Yet, as Hans Rollmann has pointed out, Harnack’s criticisms were far more profound and well based than Sharpe acknowledges (Klostermaier and Hurtado 1991:85-103). Contrary to the impression created by Sharpe it was not Harnack’s intention to discourage the study of world religions. Rather, he believed that they needed to be studied in their entirety. That meant a thorough knowledge of such things as the languages involved as well as their historical and social contexts (Harnack 1901). <br />
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What Harnack objected to was the study of religion as “comparative religion” within a faculty of theology. If we want to paraphrase his argument then one might say: “the study of religion is too important to be left to theologians.”<br />
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Unfortunately, this message was lost on most Anglo-Saxon scholars, because in response to Müller’s dictum, Harnack made the clever but ultimately unfortunate rhetorical quip that “Anyone who does not know this religion, knows no religion, and anyone who knows Christianity, its history and development, knows all religions” (Harnack 1901). Good rhetoric can sometimes backfire and backfire it did. Instead of asking why a liberal thinker like Harnack would object to comparative religion Harnack’s argument was subsequently dismissed as an example of theological bias.<br />
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<b>Bibliography</b><br />
Harnack, Adolf: Die Aufgabe der theologischen Fakultäten und die allgemeine Religionsgeschichte. In: <i>Reden und Aufsätze</i>. Zweiter Band, Erste Abteilung. Berliner Universität König Friedrich Wilhelms III gehalten in der Aula derselben am 3 Aug., 3rd edition, Gießen 1901. <br />
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Klostermaier, Klaus K./Hurtado, Larry W.: <i>Religious Studies. Issues, Prospects, and Proposals</i>, Atlanta/Georgia 1991.<br />
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Sharpe, Eric J.: <i>Comparative Religion. A History</i>, London, 1975.<br />
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For a fuller discussion of this issue see: Irving Hexham, <i>A Specter is Haunting Religious Studies: Harnack Dilettantism, and Inter-Disciplinary Smoke and Mirrors</i>, Berliner Beiträge zur Missionsgeschichte, Volume 11, Issue 1, 2008, pp. 7-37.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-62413028630619680362010-12-16T09:47:00.001-07:002012-03-03T06:27:01.693-07:00The Clash of Civilizations RevisitedYesterday, Wednesday, 15 December, the German talk show host Sandra Maischberger interviewed former German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt who is now in his 90's, on German Television for North America (DWTV). Unfortunately, the interview is only available in German. For those who understand German it is available at:<br />
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http://mediathek.daserste.de/daserste/servlet/content/6073858?pageId=&moduleId=311210&categoryId=&goto=&show=<br />
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During the interview the topic came around to the question of religion and contemporary social issues. To my surprise Schmidt, who is a member of the German socialist, SDP, endorsed the Samuel P. Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996). Interestingly, Schmidt did not see this as a religious issue. Rather, he argued it was social and cultural.<br />
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Nevertheless, here in North American the left have lambasted Huntington for his “right wing” views. Schmidt’s endorsement appears to mark a change, at least in the way Europeans, and particularly Germans, are thinking about these issues. Perhaps, we should all take a second look at Huntington.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1381114035949608527.post-49015867296941436322010-07-09T12:25:00.001-06:002010-07-09T12:25:52.092-06:00Truth and ToleranceFor Christians a useful place to start when thinking about the relationship of other religious traditions to Christianity is Joseph Ratzinger’s book Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief and World Religions (San Francisco: Ignatius Press 2003). Written by the man who is now Pope Benedict XVI, this book is remarkably well researched and very readable. Interestingly he pays a fair amount of attention to the views of evangelical Christians with whom he agrees. The basic theme of the book is that Christian truth must be separated from the way Christians interact and live alongside people who belong to other religious traditions.<br /><br />Rejecting mushy forms of dialog the then Cardinal Ratzinger argues that truth and tolerance are not incompatible. In his view it is possible to be a believing Christian who is thoroughly orthodox while at the same time respecting the beliefs of members of other faiths. Drawing on scripture and the Christian tradition this book presents an intelligent approach to religious pluralism which all Christians who affirm the historic creeds will find very helpful.<br /><br />It is a good place for believing Christians to begin the study of religion.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0